Multicore microprocessor ( or chip-level multiprocessor, CMP) is one that combines two or more independent processors into a single package, often a single integrated circuit (IC). A dual-core device contains two independent microprocessors and a quad-core device contains four microprocessors. A multi-core microprocessor implements multiprocessing in a single physical package. Cores in a multicore device may share a single coherent cache at the highest on-device cache level (e.g. L2 for the Intel Core 2) or may have separate caches (e.g. current AMD dual-core processors). The processors also share the same interconnect to the rest of the system. Each "core" independently implements optimizations such as superscalar execution, pipelining, and hyperthreading. A system with N cores is effective when it is presented with N or more threads concurrently. The most commercially significant (or at least the most 'obvious') multi-core processors are those used in computers (primarily from Intel & AMD) and games consoles (eg the Cell processor in the PS3). In this context, "multi" typical means a relatively small number of cores. However, the technology is widely used in other technology areas, especially those of embedded processors such as network processors and digital signal processors, and in GPUs. In these applications, multi-core processors with higher numbers of processing elements (hundreds on one die) now exist.
Monday, May 28, 2007
Sunday, May 20, 2007
All about viruses
One of the biggest fears among new computer users is being infected by a computer virus or programs designed to destroy their personal data. Viruses are malicious software programs that have been designed by other computer users to cause destruction and havoc on a computer and spread themselves to other computers where they can repeat the process.
Once the virus is made, it is often distributed through shareware, pirated software, e-mail, P2P programs, or other programs where users share data.
The first virus was written by Fred Cohen in 1983, and later coined in a 1984 research paper. Once the computer has become infected by a virus it copies itself to anything else writable and/or sends itself automatically to other users in a network or through e-mail infecting thousands, if not millions, of other computers. Much like how a human virus is spread.
Computer users can help protect themselves against computer viruses, malware, and other computer security threats by installing an anti-virus protection program.
HOW VIRUSES ARE CONTRACTED
In the past the majority of computer viruses were contracted from users sharing data using floppy diskettes. However, with the increased popularity of the Internet most computer viruses are contracted today through e-mail and by downloading software over the Internet or P2P sharing.
VIRUS PROPERTIES
Below is a listing of some of the different properties a computer virus is capable of having and what the particular property is capable of doing. Not all viruses will have these abilities, however there are some viruses that will.
Your computer can be infected even if files are just copied. Because some viruses are memory resident, as soon as a diskette or program is loaded into memory, the virus then attaches itself into memory and then is capable of infecting any file on the computer you have access to.
Can be Polymorphic. Some viruses have the capability of modifying their code, which means one virus could have various amounts of similar variants. This is also true with e-mail viruses that change the subject or body of the message to help from being detected.
Can be memory or non-memory resident. As mentioned earlier a virus is capable of being either memory resident where the virus first loads into memory and then infects a computer or non-memory resident where the virus code is only executed each time a file is opened.
Can be a stealth virus. Stealth viruses will first attach itself to files on the computer and then attack the computer; this causes the virus to spread more rapidly.
Viruses can carry other viruses. Because viruses are only software programs a virus may also carry other viruses making the virus more lethal and help the primary virus hide or assist the primary virus with infecting a particular section of the computer.
Can make the system never show outward signs. Some viruses can hide changes made, such as when a file was last modified making the virus more difficult to detect.
Can stay on the computer even if the computer is formatted. Some Viruses have the capability of infecting different portions of the computer such as the CMOS battery or master boot record. Finally, if a computer is completely erased and the virus is on a backup disk it can easily re-infect the computer.
HOW VIRUSES MAY AFFECT FILES
Viruses can affect any files; however, usually attack .com, .exe, .sys, .bin, .pif or any data files. Viruses have the capability of infecting any file; however, will generally infect executable files or data files, such as word or excel documents which are opened frequently and allow the virus to try infecting other files more often.
Increase the files size, however this can be hidden. When infecting files, virtues will generally increase the size of the file; however, with more sophisticated viruses these changes can be hidden.
It can delete files as the file is run. Because most files are loaded into memory, once the program is in memory the virus can delete the file used to execute the virus.
It can corrupt files randomly. Some destructive viruses are not designed to destroy random data but instead randomly delete or corrupt files.
It can cause write protect errors when executing .exe files from a write protected disk. Viruses may need to write themselves to files which are executed; because of this, if a diskette is write protected, you may receive a write protection error.
It can convert .exe files to .com files. Viruses may use a separate file to run the program and rename the original file to another extension so the exe is run before the com.
It can reboot the computer when executed. Numerous computer viruses have been designed to cause a computer to reboot, freeze, or perform other tasks not normally exhibited by the computer.
WHAT VIRUSES MAY DO
Below are possibilities you may experience when you are infected with a virus. Remember that you also may be experiencing any of the below issues and not have a virus.
Deleted files.
Various messages in files or on programs.
Changes volume label.
Marks clusters as bad in the FAT.
Randomly overwrites sectors on the hard disk.
Replaces the MBR with own code.
Create more than one partition.
Attempts to access the hard disk drive, which can result in error messages such as: Invalid drive specification.
Causes cross-linked files.
Causes a "sector not found" error.
Cause the system to run slow.
Logical partitions created, partitions decrease in size.
A directory may be displayed as garbage.
Directory order may be modified so files, such as COM files, will start at the beginning of the directory.
Cause Hardware problems such as keyboard keys not working, printer issues, modem issues etc.
Disable ports such as LPT or COM ports.
Caused keyboard keys to be remapped.
Alter the system time / date.
Cause system to hang or freeze randomly.
Cause activity on HDD or FDD randomly.
Increase file size.
Increase or decrease memory size.
Randomly change file or memory size.
Extended boot times.
Increase disk access times.
Cause computer to make strange noises, make music, clicking noises or beeps.
Display pictures.
Different types of error messages.
DETECTING VIRUSES
The recommended method of detecting and cleaning the computer from any computer viruses or other malware is an anti-virus protection program. A listing of anti-virus protection programs and what they help protect can be found on document CH000514.
Alternatively, a user can look at various aspects of the computer and detect possible signs indicating a virus is on the computer. While this method can be used to determine some viruses, it cannot clean or determine the exact virus you may or may not have and is not recommended.
VIRUS MYTHS
Below are come comments we've come across that are common misconceptions when it comes to computer viruses and other malware.
"If I download a file onto a disk, I don't have to worry about a viruses." - This is not true, just because you've placed a file on a diskette or moved a file from a diskette to your hard drive does not mean that your computer cannot be infected. Many viruses are memory resident and capable of loading themselves into memory once a diskette is placed in the computer.
"If I buy sealed software I don't have to worry about viruses." or "If I just buy registered software I don't have to worry about viruses." - This is not always true, just because the program may be surrounded in plastic doesn't mean that it cannot be infected with a virus. When a software program is saved onto a diskette or disc if that computer or program is infected the virus will attach itself. Although this issue very rarely occurs it is still a possibility.
"If I don't download anything off of the Internet I don't have to worry about viruses." - This is definitely not true. Although most companies and web sites will scan the files for viruses before they make them available to download some may not. In addition many people create a site or a file to download with the intention of spreading a virus, spyware, Trojan horses, or other malware.
"If I just read my e-mail, I will not have to worry about viruses." - Not true; there are viruses out there that are distributed through e-mail; also, files can be attached with e-mail and if executed can infect the computer. Today this is one of the most common ways computer viruses spread around the world.
"If I don't get on the Internet I don't have to worry about viruses." - This, unfortunately, is not the case. Although many viruses are spread over the Internet today it is still possible to contract a computer virus form any diskette or disc you put in the computer.
"You can contract viruses from just looking at web pages." - Not true. However, you can contract a virus if you download and execute a file from that web page. In addition spyware and other scripts can be executed from just viewing a web page. Although these programs are not designed to delete files on your computer they should be considered a privacy violation.
Once the virus is made, it is often distributed through shareware, pirated software, e-mail, P2P programs, or other programs where users share data.
The first virus was written by Fred Cohen in 1983, and later coined in a 1984 research paper. Once the computer has become infected by a virus it copies itself to anything else writable and/or sends itself automatically to other users in a network or through e-mail infecting thousands, if not millions, of other computers. Much like how a human virus is spread.
Computer users can help protect themselves against computer viruses, malware, and other computer security threats by installing an anti-virus protection program.
HOW VIRUSES ARE CONTRACTED
In the past the majority of computer viruses were contracted from users sharing data using floppy diskettes. However, with the increased popularity of the Internet most computer viruses are contracted today through e-mail and by downloading software over the Internet or P2P sharing.
VIRUS PROPERTIES
Below is a listing of some of the different properties a computer virus is capable of having and what the particular property is capable of doing. Not all viruses will have these abilities, however there are some viruses that will.
Your computer can be infected even if files are just copied. Because some viruses are memory resident, as soon as a diskette or program is loaded into memory, the virus then attaches itself into memory and then is capable of infecting any file on the computer you have access to.
Can be Polymorphic. Some viruses have the capability of modifying their code, which means one virus could have various amounts of similar variants. This is also true with e-mail viruses that change the subject or body of the message to help from being detected.
Can be memory or non-memory resident. As mentioned earlier a virus is capable of being either memory resident where the virus first loads into memory and then infects a computer or non-memory resident where the virus code is only executed each time a file is opened.
Can be a stealth virus. Stealth viruses will first attach itself to files on the computer and then attack the computer; this causes the virus to spread more rapidly.
Viruses can carry other viruses. Because viruses are only software programs a virus may also carry other viruses making the virus more lethal and help the primary virus hide or assist the primary virus with infecting a particular section of the computer.
Can make the system never show outward signs. Some viruses can hide changes made, such as when a file was last modified making the virus more difficult to detect.
Can stay on the computer even if the computer is formatted. Some Viruses have the capability of infecting different portions of the computer such as the CMOS battery or master boot record. Finally, if a computer is completely erased and the virus is on a backup disk it can easily re-infect the computer.
HOW VIRUSES MAY AFFECT FILES
Viruses can affect any files; however, usually attack .com, .exe, .sys, .bin, .pif or any data files. Viruses have the capability of infecting any file; however, will generally infect executable files or data files, such as word or excel documents which are opened frequently and allow the virus to try infecting other files more often.
Increase the files size, however this can be hidden. When infecting files, virtues will generally increase the size of the file; however, with more sophisticated viruses these changes can be hidden.
It can delete files as the file is run. Because most files are loaded into memory, once the program is in memory the virus can delete the file used to execute the virus.
It can corrupt files randomly. Some destructive viruses are not designed to destroy random data but instead randomly delete or corrupt files.
It can cause write protect errors when executing .exe files from a write protected disk. Viruses may need to write themselves to files which are executed; because of this, if a diskette is write protected, you may receive a write protection error.
It can convert .exe files to .com files. Viruses may use a separate file to run the program and rename the original file to another extension so the exe is run before the com.
It can reboot the computer when executed. Numerous computer viruses have been designed to cause a computer to reboot, freeze, or perform other tasks not normally exhibited by the computer.
WHAT VIRUSES MAY DO
Below are possibilities you may experience when you are infected with a virus. Remember that you also may be experiencing any of the below issues and not have a virus.
Deleted files.
Various messages in files or on programs.
Changes volume label.
Marks clusters as bad in the FAT.
Randomly overwrites sectors on the hard disk.
Replaces the MBR with own code.
Create more than one partition.
Attempts to access the hard disk drive, which can result in error messages such as: Invalid drive specification.
Causes cross-linked files.
Causes a "sector not found" error.
Cause the system to run slow.
Logical partitions created, partitions decrease in size.
A directory may be displayed as garbage.
Directory order may be modified so files, such as COM files, will start at the beginning of the directory.
Cause Hardware problems such as keyboard keys not working, printer issues, modem issues etc.
Disable ports such as LPT or COM ports.
Caused keyboard keys to be remapped.
Alter the system time / date.
Cause system to hang or freeze randomly.
Cause activity on HDD or FDD randomly.
Increase file size.
Increase or decrease memory size.
Randomly change file or memory size.
Extended boot times.
Increase disk access times.
Cause computer to make strange noises, make music, clicking noises or beeps.
Display pictures.
Different types of error messages.
DETECTING VIRUSES
The recommended method of detecting and cleaning the computer from any computer viruses or other malware is an anti-virus protection program. A listing of anti-virus protection programs and what they help protect can be found on document CH000514.
Alternatively, a user can look at various aspects of the computer and detect possible signs indicating a virus is on the computer. While this method can be used to determine some viruses, it cannot clean or determine the exact virus you may or may not have and is not recommended.
VIRUS MYTHS
Below are come comments we've come across that are common misconceptions when it comes to computer viruses and other malware.
"If I download a file onto a disk, I don't have to worry about a viruses." - This is not true, just because you've placed a file on a diskette or moved a file from a diskette to your hard drive does not mean that your computer cannot be infected. Many viruses are memory resident and capable of loading themselves into memory once a diskette is placed in the computer.
"If I buy sealed software I don't have to worry about viruses." or "If I just buy registered software I don't have to worry about viruses." - This is not always true, just because the program may be surrounded in plastic doesn't mean that it cannot be infected with a virus. When a software program is saved onto a diskette or disc if that computer or program is infected the virus will attach itself. Although this issue very rarely occurs it is still a possibility.
"If I don't download anything off of the Internet I don't have to worry about viruses." - This is definitely not true. Although most companies and web sites will scan the files for viruses before they make them available to download some may not. In addition many people create a site or a file to download with the intention of spreading a virus, spyware, Trojan horses, or other malware.
"If I just read my e-mail, I will not have to worry about viruses." - Not true; there are viruses out there that are distributed through e-mail; also, files can be attached with e-mail and if executed can infect the computer. Today this is one of the most common ways computer viruses spread around the world.
"If I don't get on the Internet I don't have to worry about viruses." - This, unfortunately, is not the case. Although many viruses are spread over the Internet today it is still possible to contract a computer virus form any diskette or disc you put in the computer.
"You can contract viruses from just looking at web pages." - Not true. However, you can contract a virus if you download and execute a file from that web page. In addition spyware and other scripts can be executed from just viewing a web page. Although these programs are not designed to delete files on your computer they should be considered a privacy violation.
The five generation of computers
The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations of computing devices. Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. Read about each generation and the developments that led to the current devices that we use today.
First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.
Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 50s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.
Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer - from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on a single chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.
Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes
The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.
Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 50s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.
Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits
The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors
The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer - from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on a single chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.
Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence
Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
Why e-mails bounce?
In computer jargon, a bounced email is one that never arrives in the recipient's inbox and is sent back, or bounced back, to the sender with an error message that indicates to the sender that the e-mail was never successfully transmitted. But what happens when someone sends an e-mail out into cyberspace, and why do e-mails sometimes bounce back?
When a user attempts to send an e-mail, he is telling his e-mail system to look for the domain of the recipient (for example, webopedia.com) and the domain's mail server. Once the e-mail system makes contact with the recipient's mail server, the mail server looks at the message to determine if it will let the message pass through the server. If the recipient's server has predetermined that it is not accepting e-mails from the sender's address (for example, if it has blocked the address for anti-spamming purposes), the server will reject the message and it will subsequently bounce back to the sender. The message will also bounce back to the server if the mail server on the recipient's end is busy and cannot handle the request at that time. When an e-mail is returned to the sender without being accepted by the recipient's mail server, this is called a hard bounce.
Once the e-mail has been accepted by the recipient's mail server there are still ways for the message to be rejected. The mail server has to determine if the recipient (for example, webmaster@webopedia.com) actually exists within its system and if that recipient is allowed to accept e-mails. If the recipient's address does not exist on the mail server, then the message will be rejected because there is no one to deliver the message to. If the sender misspells the recipient's address (for example, qebmaster@webopedia.com) then the system will recognize this as a nonexistent address and bounce the message back. If the recipient exists but does not have enough disk space to accept the message (i.e., if his e-mail application is filled to storage capacity) then the message will bounce back to the sender. Some mail systems predetermine a maximum message size that it will accept and will automatically bounce the message if it exceeds that size and some mail systems predetermine a maximum amount of disk space the user is allowed to occupy on the server. When an e-mail is returned to the sender after it has already been accepted by the recipient's mail server, this is called a softbounce. Some mail servers are programmed to accept incoming e-mails and store them for further analysis without initially checking to determine if the recipient exists or is even capable of receiving the message.
Occasionally, a network failure at the sender or recipient end will cause an e-mail to bounce back to the sender. Typically, a bounced e-mail returns to the sender with an explanation of why the message bounced.
What is inside Hard Disk?
All hard drives share a basic structure and are composed of the same physical features. However, not all hard drives perform the same way as the quality of the parts of the hard drive will affect its performance. Following is a description of the common features of the hard drive and how each part works in relation to the others. Hard drives are extremely sensitive equipment and the internal workings of a hard drive should not be handled by anyone other than an experienced professional.
The platters are the actual disks inside the drive that store the magnetized data. Traditionally platters are made of a light aluminum alloy and coated with a magnetizable material such as a ferrite compound that is applied in liquid form and spun evenly across the platter or thin metal film plating that is applied to the platter through electroplating, the same way that chrome is produced. Newer technology uses glass and/or ceramic platters because they can be made thinner and also because they are more efficient at resisting heat. The magnetic layer on the platters has tiny domains of magnetization that are oriented to store information that is transferred through the read/write heads. Most drives have at least two platters, and the larger the storage capacity of the drive, the more platters there are. Each platter is magnetized on each side, so a drive with 2 platters has 4 sides to store data.
The platters in a drive are separated by disk spacers and are clamped to a rotating spindle that turns all the platters in unison. The spindle motor is built right into the spindle or mounted directly below it and spins the platters at a constant set rate ranging from 3,600 to 7,200 RPM. The motor is attached to a feedback loop to ensure that it spins at precisely the speed it is supposed to.
The read/write heads read and write data to the platters. There is typically one head per platter side, and each head is attached to a single actuator shaft so that all the heads move in unison. When one head is over a track, all the other heads are at the same location over their respective surfaces. Typically, only one of the heads is active at a time, i.e., reading or writing data. When not in use, the heads rest on the stationary platters, but when in motion the spinning of the platters create air pressure that lifts the heads off the platters. The space between the platter and the head is so minute that even one dust particle or a fingerprint could disable the spin. This necessitates that hard drive assembly be done in a cleanroom. When the platters cease spinning the heads come to rest, or park, at a predetermined position on the heads, called the landing zone.
All the heads are attached to a single head actuator, or actuator arm, that moves the heads around the platters. Older hard drives used a stepper motor actuator, which moved the heads based on a motor reacting to stepper pulses. Each pulse moved the actuator over the platters in predefined steps. Stepper motor actuators are not used in modern drives because they are prone to alignment problems and are highly sensitive to heat. Modern hard drives use a voice coil actuator, which controls the movement of a coil toward or away from a permanent magnet based on the amount of current flowing through it. This guidance system is called a servo.
The platters, spindle, spindle motor, head actuator and the read/write heads are all contained in a chamber called the head disk assembly (HDA). Outside of the HDA is the logic board that controls the movements of the internal parts and controls the movement of data into and out of the drive.
Thursday, May 10, 2007
How to play games on PS2 without modchip?
In this guide, you will learn the very easy method of making copies of your PS2 and normal Playstaion games so that they are playable on the PS2. This guide will provide you with all the information you need to burn PS2 games.
You will need the following things to burn PS2 games:
a computer with a cd burner
a blank cd-r (don't use the re-recordable type a.k.a. cd-rw)
CDRWIN – The version in this guide is 3.8D
FireBurner –
PS2 patcher –
GameShark 2 for PS2 - the GameShark 2 is available at most stores that sell video games, a few examples would be Best Buy, Circuit City, or Target. You want version 1.0 of the GameShark 2. I have heard that all other versions work, but I have only tested version 1.0. GameShark2 costs about 29.95. Believe me, its worth it!!!
and a PS2 to play the games.
Burning the PS2
The process of burning ps2 games is easy. It is really only a 3 step process.(read the game, patch the game, and burn the game.)
1) insert game into cd drive.
2) Open up CDRWIN and click on the extract disk/tracks/sectors button.
3) Your settings should be as follows:
For “extract mode” select disk image/ cue sheet
For “read options” select “raw”
For “error recovery” select “abort”
For “jitter correction” select “auto”
For “subcode analysis” select “auto”
Data Speed and Audio Speed should be the same
For “read retry count” type 0
For “subcode threshold” type 300
Make sure you selected the drive that your PS2 game is in
Make sure you typed in the file name (just type the name of the game) and Check the directory that you're putting your file in.
Then just press “start”
If you get an error in the middle of reading the disk that says something like “can't read sections xxxx-xxxxx of disk”, it is becase the disk is scratched and CDRWIN can't read it. Try to clean the disk, if that doesn't work you just have to use a different game (a different copy of the same game)
4) Once CDRWIN is done, click ok and then exit CDRWIN. Open up the PS2 patcher, select the game file you just created and patch it (make sure you select the “RAW” option.
5) Close the PS2 patcher, next open up Fireburner. Click on the visual cue burner button. When you created your .bin file (the game file) in CDRWIN, a .cue file should have automaticly been created. In that case, drag and drop the .cue file into the Fireburner window. If the .cue file was not created, just drag and drop the .bin file into the Fireburner window. After you have done that, right click (click with the right side button on your mouse) on your file in the Fireburner window, and select “Burn/Test burn”.
6) In the options window that appears, select your cdwriter, select your write speed(doesn't really matter), and make sure you select “Track at once (TOA) for the recording method. As for the options on the right side of the options window, make sure only the following are checked: “eject cd” and “close session”.
When you have selected the options, click ok and your PS2 game will burn. That's all you have to do to burn a game.
Burning a Playstion (PSone) game
1) If you want, you can spend 5 minutes using the same method as above to burn your playstation game, but its not necessary. For a playstation game (not PS2) all you need to do is use a program that lets you make an “exact copy” or a “backup disk (CDRWIN)” You don't need any selected options, you just need to start the game on the PS2 the same way you would a PS2 game.
Starting the game on your PS2
1) Now for the fun part (and challenging part the first couple of times) This may sound a little complicated at first, but after you do it 3 or 4 times, it's super easy. First things first, you must remove the front of your game drive on your PS2(not a big deal, it can snap on and off).
2) Now insert your gameshark 2 cd(make sure the gameshark memory card is in one of the 2 slots, doesn't matter which one.)
3) In the gameshark options, choose “start game”, then “without”. Your screen should read “Please insert game disk then press X to continue.”
4) Now this part can be trickey for beginners, so I will provide pictures
-the main purpose of this starting method is to open up the PS2 and swap the gameshark disk with your burned game without the PS2 knowing you did it. DO NOT press the eject button on the PS2!!!
-with the PS2 cd tray cover removed, you will be able to look in and see a while tab inside the PS2. With a credit card (or something like it) gently slide the white tab all the way over to the right, if you did it correctly, this should allow you to manually pull open the PS2 cd tray.
5) Next, take the gameshark disk out of the PS2 and put in your burned game.
6) Gently push the PS2 cd tray fully back into the PS2 (Don't press the eject button).
7) Now you need to slide that white tab all the way back to the left (its origional position). To do this you get a strong papper clip(needs to be a strong one) stick it into the PS2 on the right side of the white tab and push the tab back to the left.
If you pushed the tab all the way back to the left and did every thing else right, you are ready to play your game. Just press X on your PS2 controler and watch as your burned game loads. ( It may load slower than an original game, depending on the cd-r you are using, I use Verbatim cd-r's and have no problems.)
Download Programs Mentioned:
http://rapidshare.de/files/961808/PS2_Play.rar.html
You will need the following things to burn PS2 games:
a computer with a cd burner
a blank cd-r (don't use the re-recordable type a.k.a. cd-rw)
CDRWIN – The version in this guide is 3.8D
FireBurner –
PS2 patcher –
GameShark 2 for PS2 - the GameShark 2 is available at most stores that sell video games, a few examples would be Best Buy, Circuit City, or Target. You want version 1.0 of the GameShark 2. I have heard that all other versions work, but I have only tested version 1.0. GameShark2 costs about 29.95. Believe me, its worth it!!!
and a PS2 to play the games.
Burning the PS2
The process of burning ps2 games is easy. It is really only a 3 step process.(read the game, patch the game, and burn the game.)
1) insert game into cd drive.
2) Open up CDRWIN and click on the extract disk/tracks/sectors button.
3) Your settings should be as follows:
For “extract mode” select disk image/ cue sheet
For “read options” select “raw”
For “error recovery” select “abort”
For “jitter correction” select “auto”
For “subcode analysis” select “auto”
Data Speed and Audio Speed should be the same
For “read retry count” type 0
For “subcode threshold” type 300
Make sure you selected the drive that your PS2 game is in
Make sure you typed in the file name (just type the name of the game) and Check the directory that you're putting your file in.
Then just press “start”
If you get an error in the middle of reading the disk that says something like “can't read sections xxxx-xxxxx of disk”, it is becase the disk is scratched and CDRWIN can't read it. Try to clean the disk, if that doesn't work you just have to use a different game (a different copy of the same game)
4) Once CDRWIN is done, click ok and then exit CDRWIN. Open up the PS2 patcher, select the game file you just created and patch it (make sure you select the “RAW” option.
5) Close the PS2 patcher, next open up Fireburner. Click on the visual cue burner button. When you created your .bin file (the game file) in CDRWIN, a .cue file should have automaticly been created. In that case, drag and drop the .cue file into the Fireburner window. If the .cue file was not created, just drag and drop the .bin file into the Fireburner window. After you have done that, right click (click with the right side button on your mouse) on your file in the Fireburner window, and select “Burn/Test burn”.
6) In the options window that appears, select your cdwriter, select your write speed(doesn't really matter), and make sure you select “Track at once (TOA) for the recording method. As for the options on the right side of the options window, make sure only the following are checked: “eject cd” and “close session”.
When you have selected the options, click ok and your PS2 game will burn. That's all you have to do to burn a game.
Burning a Playstion (PSone) game
1) If you want, you can spend 5 minutes using the same method as above to burn your playstation game, but its not necessary. For a playstation game (not PS2) all you need to do is use a program that lets you make an “exact copy” or a “backup disk (CDRWIN)” You don't need any selected options, you just need to start the game on the PS2 the same way you would a PS2 game.
Starting the game on your PS2
1) Now for the fun part (and challenging part the first couple of times) This may sound a little complicated at first, but after you do it 3 or 4 times, it's super easy. First things first, you must remove the front of your game drive on your PS2(not a big deal, it can snap on and off).
2) Now insert your gameshark 2 cd(make sure the gameshark memory card is in one of the 2 slots, doesn't matter which one.)
3) In the gameshark options, choose “start game”, then “without”. Your screen should read “Please insert game disk then press X to continue.”
4) Now this part can be trickey for beginners, so I will provide pictures
-the main purpose of this starting method is to open up the PS2 and swap the gameshark disk with your burned game without the PS2 knowing you did it. DO NOT press the eject button on the PS2!!!
-with the PS2 cd tray cover removed, you will be able to look in and see a while tab inside the PS2. With a credit card (or something like it) gently slide the white tab all the way over to the right, if you did it correctly, this should allow you to manually pull open the PS2 cd tray.
5) Next, take the gameshark disk out of the PS2 and put in your burned game.
6) Gently push the PS2 cd tray fully back into the PS2 (Don't press the eject button).
7) Now you need to slide that white tab all the way back to the left (its origional position). To do this you get a strong papper clip(needs to be a strong one) stick it into the PS2 on the right side of the white tab and push the tab back to the left.
If you pushed the tab all the way back to the left and did every thing else right, you are ready to play your game. Just press X on your PS2 controler and watch as your burned game loads. ( It may load slower than an original game, depending on the cd-r you are using, I use Verbatim cd-r's and have no problems.)
Download Programs Mentioned:
http://rapidshare.de/files/961808/PS2_Play.rar.html
How to search on google?
Ultimate Google Way
Look for Appz in Parent Directory
intext:"parent directory" intext:"[EXE]"
intext:"parent directory" index of:"[EXE]"
intext:"parent directory" index of:"[RAR]"
This will look for any exe or optionaly for zip, rar, ace, iso, bin and etc.
Look for Moviez in Parent Directory
intext:"parent directory" intext:"[VID]"
intext:"parent directory" index of:"[VID]"
This will look for any video filetype in parent directory. You can optionaly add index:"xvid" or intext:"divx" for specific codec movie.
Look for Muzik in Parent Directory
intext:"parent directory" intext:"[MP3]"
intext:"parent directory" index of:"[MP3]"
This will look for any music files.
Look for Gamez in Parent Directory
intext:"parent directory" index of:"[Gamez]"
Why PCs Crash?
10 reasons why PCs crash U must Know
Fatal error: the system has become unstable or is busy," it says. "Enter to return to Windows or press Control-Alt-Delete to restart your computer. If you do this you will lose any unsaved information in all open applications."
You have just been struck by the Blue Screen of Death. Anyone who uses Mcft Windows will be familiar with this. What can you do? More importantly, how can you prevent it happening?
1 Hardware conflict
The number one reason why Windows crashes is hardware conflict. Each hardware device communicates to other devices through an interrupt request channel (IRQ). These are supposed to be unique for each device.
For example, a printer usually connects internally on IRQ 7. The keyboard usually uses IRQ 1 and the floppy disk drive IRQ 6. Each device will try to hog a single IRQ for itself.
If there are a lot of devices, or if they are not installed properly, two of them may end up sharing the same IRQ number. When the user tries to use both devices at the same time, a crash can happen. The way to check if your computer has a hardware conflict is through the following route:
* Start-Settings-Control Panel-System-Device Manager.
Often if a device has a problem a yellow '!' appears next to its description in the Device Manager. Highlight Computer (in the Device Manager) and press Properties to see the IRQ numbers used by your computer. If the IRQ number appears twice, two devices may be using it.
Sometimes a device might share an IRQ with something described as 'IRQ holder for PCI steering'. This can be ignored. The best way to fix this problem is to remove the problem device and reinstall it.
Sometimes you may have to find more recent drivers on the internet to make the device function properly. A good resource is www.driverguide.com. If the device is a soundcard, or a modem, it can often be fixed by moving it to a different slot on the motherboard (be careful about opening your computer, as you may void the warranty).
When working inside a computer you should switch it off, unplug the mains lead and touch an unpainted metal surface to discharge any static electricity.
To be fair to Mcft, the problem with IRQ numbers is not of its making. It is a legacy problem going back to the first PC designs using the IBM 8086 chip. Initially there were only eight IRQs. Today there are 16 IRQs in a PC. It is easy to run out of them. There are plans to increase the number of IRQs in future designs.
2 Bad Ram
Ram (random-access memory) problems might bring on the blue screen of death with a message saying Fatal Exception Error. A fatal error indicates a serious hardware problem. Sometimes it may mean a part is damaged and will need replacing.
But a fatal error caused by Ram might be caused by a mismatch of chips. For example, mixing 70-nanosecond (70ns) Ram with 60ns Ram will usually force the computer to run all the Ram at the slower speed. This will often crash the machine if the Ram is overworked.
One way around this problem is to enter the BIOS settings and increase the wait state of the Ram. This can make it more stable. Another way to troubleshoot a suspected Ram problem is to rearrange the Ram chips on the motherboard, or take some of them out. Then try to repeat the circumstances that caused the crash. When handling Ram try not to touch the gold connections, as they can be easily damaged.
Parity error messages also refer to Ram. Modern Ram chips are either parity (ECC) or non parity (non-ECC). It is best not to mix the two types, as this can be a cause of trouble.
EMM386 error messages refer to memory problems but may not be connected to bad Ram. This may be due to free memory problems often linked to old Dos-based programmes.
3 BIOS settings
Every motherboard is supplied with a range of chipset settings that are decided in the factory. A common way to access these settings is to press the F2 or delete button during the first few seconds of a boot-up.
Once inside the BIOS, great care should be taken. It is a good idea to write down on a piece of paper all the settings that appear on the screen. That way, if you change something and the computer becomes more unstable, you will know what settings to revert to.
A common BIOS error concerns the CAS latency. This refers to the Ram. Older EDO (extended data out) Ram has a CAS latency of 3. Newer SDRam has a CAS latency of 2. Setting the wrong figure can cause the Ram to lock up and freeze the computer's display.
Mcft Windows is better at allocating IRQ numbers than any BIOS. If possible set the IRQ numbers to Auto in the BIOS. This will allow Windows to allocate the IRQ numbers (make sure the BIOS setting for Plug and Play OS is switched to 'yes' to allow Windows to do this.).
4 Hard disk drives
After a few weeks, the information on a hard disk drive starts to become piecemeal or fragmented. It is a good idea to defragment the hard disk every week or so, to prevent the disk from causing a screen freeze. Go to
* Start-Programs-Accessories-System Tools-Disk Defragmenter
This will start the procedure. You will be unable to write data to the hard drive (to save it) while the disk is defragmenting, so it is a good idea to schedule the procedure for a period of inactivity using the Task Scheduler.
The Task Scheduler should be one of the small icons on the bottom right of the Windows opening page (the desktop).
Some lockups and screen freezes caused by hard disk problems can be solved by reducing the read-ahead optimisation. This can be adjusted by going to
* Start-Settings-Control Panel-System Icon-Performance-File System-Hard Disk.
Hard disks will slow down and crash if they are too full. Do some housekeeping on your hard drive every few months and free some space on it. Open the Windows folder on the C drive and find the Temporary Internet Files folder. Deleting the contents (not the folder) can free a lot of space.
Empty the Recycle Bin every week to free more space. Hard disk drives should be scanned every week for errors or bad sectors. Go to
* Start-Programs-Accessories-System Tools-ScanDisk
Otherwise assign the Task Scheduler to perform this operation at night when the computer is not in use.
5 Fatal OE exceptions and VXD errors
Fatal OE exception errors and VXD errors are often caused by video card problems.
These can often be resolved easily by reducing the resolution of the video display. Go to
* Start-Settings-Control Panel-Display-Settings
Here you should slide the screen area bar to the left. Take a look at the colour settings on the left of that window. For most desktops, high colour 16-bit depth is adequate.
If the screen freezes or you experience system lockups it might be due to the video card. Make sure it does not have a hardware conflict. Go to
* Start-Settings-Control Panel-System-Device Manager
Here, select the + beside Display Adapter. A line of text describing your video card should appear. Select it (make it blue) and press properties. Then select Resources and select each line in the window. Look for a message that says No Conflicts.
If you have video card hardware conflict, you will see it here. Be careful at this point and make a note of everything you do in case you make things worse.
The way to resolve a hardware conflict is to uncheck the Use Automatic Settings box and hit the Change Settings button. You are searching for a setting that will display a No Conflicts message.
Another useful way to resolve video problems is to go to
* Start-Settings-Control Panel-System-Performance-Graphics
Here you should move the Hardware Acceleration slider to the left. As ever, the most common cause of problems relating to graphics cards is old or faulty drivers (a driver is a small piece of software used by a computer to communicate with a device).
Look up your video card's manufacturer on the internet and search for the most recent drivers for it.
6 Viruses
Often the first sign of a virus infection is instability. Some viruses erase the boot sector of a hard drive, making it impossible to start. This is why it is a good idea to create a Windows start-up disk. Go to
* Start-Settings-Control Panel-Add/Remove Programs
Here, look for the Start Up Disk tab. Virus protection requires constant vigilance.
A virus scanner requires a list of virus signatures in order to be able to identify viruses. These signatures are stored in a DAT file. DAT files should be updated weekly from the website of your antivirus software manufacturer.
An excellent antivirus programme is McAfee VirusScan by Network Associates ( www.nai.com). Another is Norton AntiVirus 2000, made by Symantec ( www.symantec.com).
7 Printers
The action of sending a document to print creates a bigger file, often called a postscript file.
Printers have only a small amount of memory, called a buffer. This can be easily overloaded. Printing a document also uses a considerable amount of CPU power. This will also slow down the computer's performance.
If the printer is trying to print unusual characters, these might not be recognised, and can crash the computer. Sometimes printers will not recover from a crash because of confusion in the buffer. A good way to clear the buffer is to unplug the printer for ten seconds. Booting up from a powerless state, also called a cold boot, will restore the printer's default settings and you may be able to carry on.
8 Software
A common cause of computer crash is faulty or badly-installed software. Often the problem can be cured by uninstalling the software and then reinstalling it. Use Norton Uninstall or Uninstall Shield to remove an application from your system properly. This will also remove references to the programme in the System Registry and leaves the way clear for a completely fresh copy.
The System Registry can be corrupted by old references to obsolete software that you thought was uninstalled. Use Reg Cleaner by Jouni Vuorio to clean up the System Registry and remove obsolete entries. It works on Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows 98 SE (Second Edition), Windows Millennium Edition (ME), NT4 and Windows 2000.
Read the instructions and use it carefully so you don't do permanent damage to the Registry. If the Registry is damaged you will have to reinstall your operating system. Reg Cleaner can be obtained from www.jv16.org
Often a Windows problem can be resolved by entering Safe Mode. This can be done during start-up. When you see the message "Starting Windows" press F4. This should take you into Safe Mode.
Safe Mode loads a minimum of drivers. It allows you to find and fix problems that prevent Windows from loading properly.
Sometimes installing Windows is difficult because of unsuitable BIOS settings. If you keep getting SUWIN error messages (Windows setup) during the Windows installation, then try entering the BIOS and disabling the CPU internal cache. Try to disable the Level 2 (L2) cache if that doesn't work.
Remember to restore all the BIOS settings back to their former settings following installation.
9 Overheating
Central processing units (CPUs) are usually equipped with fans to keep them cool. If the fan fails or if the CPU gets old it may start to overheat and generate a particular kind of error called a kernel error. This is a common problem in chips that have been overclocked to operate at higher speeds than they are supposed to.
One remedy is to get a bigger better fan and install it on top of the CPU. Specialist cooling fans/heatsinks are available from www.computernerd.com or www.coolit.com
CPU problems can often be fixed by disabling the CPU internal cache in the BIOS. This will make the machine run more slowly, but it should also be more stable.
10 Power supply problems
With all the new construction going on around the country the steady supply of electricity has become disrupted. A power surge or spike can crash a computer as easily as a power cut.
If this has become a nuisance for you then consider buying a uninterrupted power supply (UPS). This will give you a clean power supply when there is electricity, and it will give you a few minutes to perform a controlled shutdown in case of a power cut.
It is a good investment if your data are critical, because a power cut will cause any unsaved data to be lost.
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